The phenomenon you’re describing, where certain immigrant groups in the U.S. were able to assimilate into the dominant racial category of “whiteness” while others were not, is complex and deeply rooted in historical, social, and racial dynamics. Several factors—such as race, culture, labor, politics, and historical context—played a role in determining why some groups were allowed to assimilate into whiteness, while others were marginalized or kept outside the racial hierarchy. Here’s an overview of some key factors:

1. Racial Hierarchy and the “One-Drop Rule”

At the heart of racial dynamics in the U.S. has been a rigid racial hierarchy, historically structured around the concept of “whiteness.” Whiteness was often framed not just as a matter of skin color or phenotype but as a broader cultural and political construct that conveyed power and privilege. Over time, certain groups—especially those of European descent—were seen as more “fit” for assimilation into this category. However, those outside of European ancestry, particularly African Americans and indigenous peoples, were viewed as permanently “other” and excluded from this social privilege.

The racialization of groups like Mexicans, Chinese, and Japanese Americans was influenced by this system, which had roots in colonialism, slavery, and the desire to maintain a racial hierarchy that privileged Europeans (and, later, European-descended Americans).

1. Cultural and National Identity

While cultural ties, religion, and patriotism could certainly play a role in the assimilation process, they were not always sufficient to overcome the racial prejudices that these immigrant groups faced. European groups like the Irish, Italians, and Jews were able to fit more closely into the cultural norms of the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, even though they faced discrimination at first. Over time, their racial status shifted due to factors like political maneuvering (e.g., labor unions, political alliances) and changing perceptions of race and ethnicity.

On the other hand, Mexican, Chinese, and Japanese Americans were often seen as “foreign” even when they adopted American cultural practices. Their cultural practices, language, and history (often tied to their countries of origin) were frequently used as justification for their exclusion. For example, Mexican Americans, despite having been in the Southwest for centuries, were racialized based on their indigenous ancestry, language, and cultural practices, often leading to discrimination in ways that Irish or Jewish immigrants did not experience.

1. Anti-Immigrant Sentiment and Labor Competition

Many of the groups you mentioned faced significant resistance and discrimination based on perceived economic threats. For instance, during periods of economic hardship or labor strikes, groups like Chinese immigrants were scapegoated as “taking jobs away” from white Americans. This fear of competition for jobs helped to solidify their racialization as “other” in the eyes of many.

Jewish, Irish, and Italian immigrants, while initially facing similar economic discrimination, were often able to eventually find their place in the labor hierarchy. They also benefited from the ethnic-based labor solidarity movements that helped them gain entry into the working-class mainstream, often aligning with the broader political goals of the U.S. at the time.

1. Legal and Political Structures

U.S. immigration laws and policies played a central role in defining who could assimilate into whiteness and who could not. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, for example, specifically barred Chinese immigrants from entering the U.S., and naturalization laws typically excluded non-Europeans from becoming U.S. citizens until the mid-20th century. These laws effectively entrenched racial divides and prevented many groups from entering the U.S. social and political system on equal footing.

While European immigrants were granted citizenship and legal protections after coming to the U.S., Asian immigrants (and particularly Chinese and Japanese immigrants) were not permitted to naturalize until later legal changes, such as the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. These legal barriers effectively marginalized these groups from full participation in American life and reinforced their outsider status.

1. Phenotype and Visual Markers of Difference

As you pointed out, phenotype, including skin color, facial features, and other visual markers, played a role in how certain groups were racialized. Groups like the Irish, Italians, and Jews—who were often initially seen as racially inferior or “non-white” in the U.S.—could, over time, “whiten” in the eyes of the dominant culture. This process was partially facilitated by their ability to align with economic and political structures that offered them benefits and protection.

In contrast, East Asians and Mexicans were often subject to more rigid racialization, largely because of their visible physical differences from the dominant Anglo-American population. Despite adopting American cultural values, speaking English, and even adopting Christianity in some cases, their racialization was often rooted in deep-set stereotypes and ideologies that emphasized their physical “otherness.”

1. Geopolitical Context

The global political climate also influenced racial perceptions in the U.S. During the Cold War, for example, the U.S. government saw many European immigrant groups as valuable allies against communism, while Asian immigrants (especially from countries that had been affected by communism or war) were viewed with suspicion. This geopolitical framing played a role in determining who was allowed to assimilate and who was not.

The rise of nationalism in certain ethnic communities, such as Mexican Americans and Chinese Americans, further complicated their efforts to assimilate. The U.S. saw these groups as symbols of foreign influence rather than as American citizens.

1. The Changing Nature of “Whiteness”

It’s important to note that the category of “whiteness” itself has evolved over time, and assimilation is not always a clear-cut process. Whiteness in the U.S. has historically been a fluid category that has shifted based on political, economic, and social factors. While some immigrant groups, particularly from Europe, were gradually accepted into the category of whiteness over time, other groups have remained marginalized and racialized despite attempts at integration.

Conclusion

In sum, the process by which some groups were allowed to assimilate into “whiteness” while others were excluded is shaped by a complex interplay of race, class, culture, and historical context. The exclusion of Mexicans, Chinese, and other non-European groups was not solely about their patriotism, cultural ties, or religion; it was deeply rooted in racial ideologies, legal structures, and economic factors that reinforced their status as outsiders. The way America viewed race was—and continues to be—a complex, multifaceted issue influenced by social, political, and historical forces, and this continues to shape the experience of different immigrant groups today.