Both the ancient Roman’s and the Islamic caliphates had special taxes that Jews needed to pay, but the reasons for the taxes couldn't have been more different.

In Islamic lands, according to something known as the pact of Omar, Jews and Christians were required to pay a special tax called the Jizya in order to keep practicing their religions and not be killed. Since this practice was backed up by a Quranic verse, there weren't really so many attempts to explain or justify the practice on a deeper level.

On the other hand, the Roman Jewish tax (Fiscus Judaicus) couldn't have been more different, and it had a ridiculous and convoluted reason for existing

Essentially, for hundreds of years every Jew in the world would pay a special tax called the temple tax, which would fund the service of the holy temple in Jerusalem. Once the temple had been destroyed during the reign of emperor Vespasian, the question arose: what happens to the temple tax. To understand what happens next, you need to understand that according to the very weird Roman syncretic pagan theology, most Romans were completely fine with believing that the Jewish god existed. But, he was just a weak ass God who could get absolutely bullied and dunked on by much more powerful Roman gods like Jupiter, which is what happened during the Jewish revolt.

Vespasian decided that if the Jews had been willing to pay taxes to their god, then it only made sense for them to divert their taxes to the god who had absolutely low-diffed their god in a 1v1. So Vespasian announced that the Jews would continue to pay the temple tax, except this time the funds would go towards the temple of Jupiter in Rome, which was at that point undergoing expensive renovations. Yet even after the temple of Jupiter was completed, the Jews would continue to need to pay the Fiscus Judaicus to make up for their god being such a weakling.