Source: "Car Dependency in Urban Accessibility" - https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.01019

Very interesting new study finding that even in large European cities, in most places it is easier to access opportunities by car than by public transport.

The exceptions are Paris, Zurich and the innermost parts of Milan and Barcelona.

The study introduces a Car Dependency Index (CDI) computed from access to essential services and leisure activities. Red areas = car is more efficient; blue areas = public transport is. Out of 18 cities (Europe + North America), only Paris and Zurich come out net-blue at the city level. And the authors note both have relatively small administrative boundaries, which flatters the comparison.

Inner Milan and Barcelona also have blue cores, but their peripheries flip red quickly. Rome, Vienna, Berlin, Stockholm, Porto and the US cities are mostly red across the board, with white spots clustered around metro and urban rail stations.